Fundamentals of Light Art: The Concepts of "Lighting" and "Ambient Light" in a Theatrical Context

Table of Contents

• Evolution of Stage Lighting: From Historical Roots to Modern Theatrical Practice
• Defining the Role of the Lighting Designer in Theater and Concerts
• Theatrical Lighting as an Aesthetic Phenomenon: Core Principles
  • What is "lighting designer."
  • In what consists the function of the lighting designer?
• Key Functions of Lighting in Shaping Stage Action and Atmosphere
• Combine angles of lighting
• Understanding Ambient Light: Its Role in Creating Immersive Environments
  • Brightness
  • Subjective impression of brightness
  • Adaptation
  • Visual fatigue
  • Visual perception
  • Emotional perception of brightness
• Angles and Directions in Lighting: Impact on Perception and Emotion
  • Form
• Brightness and Adaptation: Managing Visual Dynamics on Stage
  • Color
  • Warm and Cold lighting
  • Any light possesses color
• FAQ: Common Questions on Lighting and Ambient Light Fundamentals
• Source Information and Credits
• Recommendations from Sundrax Entertainment

I have repeatedly tried to structure this book. As soon as I began teaching at the Leningrad State Institute of Theater, Music, and Cinematography in 1979, I started collecting necessary materials, lecture notes, articles, and historical studies. It seemed the structure was clear, given the excellent example: N.P. Izvekov's book "Light on the Stage." It would suffice to gather modern, new materials, parameters of the latest equipment, spotlights, and regulators–and the problem would be solved. Of course, the electricity section in theater needed expansion due to the emerging "theatrical electronics." As materials accumulated and drafts were rewritten, it became clear that in the modern understanding of theater, one cannot bypass the "perception" section, and thus physiology of vision, psycho-physiology of perception. The optics section expanded, video projection appeared, and so on. The collected materials already looked like a "four-volume set" of four independent books, which could be called "physics"–electricity, optics, electronics (theatrical, of course), "psychology"–physiology of vision, psychology of perception (in theatrical conditions), "theatrical technique and equipment"–stage lighting instruments and everything related to them, and "creating the light score of a performance." Standing apart was the history of theater and the development of understanding the "role" of light in theater, the formation of the lighting designer's profession. But the four sections cannot exist separately; connections must be laid between them, showing how "physiology" gives rise to the necessary "optics" in theater, how defining the production style influences the choice of instruments and even the palette of light filters, and so forth.

On the background of the absence in Russia of any narrowly focused professional literature, it seemed the volume of information necessary for a lighting designer could not be squeezed into any tome. Later, when foreign editions became available, books by our foreign colleagues–lighting designers–one could compare how they wrote. The brilliant, one of the first, book by Richard Pilbrow "Stage Lighting," the luxurious edition "Light Fantastic" by Max Keller–an album from the renowned publisher "Prestel," the foundational for American theater work by Jean Rosenthal "The Magic of Light." It turned out that Jean Rosenthal's book is in many ways very similar to N.P. Izvekov's "Light on the Stage"–the same composition of sections, but only updated to 1972 content in the lighting technology section. Probably, the tactic I chose for collecting updated material was not so bad. But what dissatisfied me? It creates the impression that all editions dedicated to theatrical lighting are cut from one template: first a bit of history of technology development, lighting instruments, then an excursion into scenography history, then a bit of physics, in terms of electricity and color physics, then a description of contemporary to the author stage lighting instruments, and at the end a series of examples on how to light this or that type of scenery. According to this template, the last book published in Russia by D. Ismagilov and E. Drevaleva "Theatrical Lighting" was also created. It would seem all is correct, but the question, why all this, how these knowledges relate to the phenomenon of the performance itself, always remained aside. The answer to that very question, which listeners of seminars and students ask most often: "How to invent light for a performance? How is the concept of light solution formed,"–there is no answer in these books.

In 1999, Steven Shelley's book "A Practical Guide to Stage Lighting" came out–this is the first example where the author speaks about the profession in simple language. On a concrete example, the main craft techniques are described, the author shares his techniques, "know-how" in the process of realizing the creative concept. Nothing like this in the literature about our profession had been before. Everything is explained extremely simply and concretely. Perhaps, I would call this book the ABC or primer of the lighting designer. And not in the sense of simplicity of the presented material, but rather in the sense of fundamental significance of techniques and realization of artistic concept. This book is simultaneously a guide and "cookbook" for the lighting designer who wants to realize his concept. Further, in the "realization" section, I will refer a lot to this edition. (I hope, in the near future, this book will be published in Russian). Steven Shelley's work greatly facilitated my labor. I can calmly omit the description of many technological techniques of the lighting designer, which are exhaustively considered by Steven Shelley. One only insignificant drawback of his book is that it considers the situation in American, non-repertory theater, theater that works by our analogy as "theater-entreprise." But this drawback is not so great, since the craft's technological techniques are unified for the profession, regardless of the economic organization or genre of a specific theater. Steven deliberately did not touch on questions of how the concept of light solution is born, all factors influencing this solution. He starts from the moment when the solution is quite tangible and walks with the reader the entire path, realizing this solution.

In my doubts, Steven's book became the key to resolving my problems, it became clear that writing about the profession of lighting designer "in general"–is incorrect. It is necessary to set aside "some shyness" and try to tell "from oneself," by virtue of what knowledge, understanding of theater, intuition, how "inventing light for a performance" occurs. It is necessary to try to classify one's own reflections by categories, and formulate each specific consideration in the form of a generalization, fair for any combination of possible considerations in this category. This kind of "subjectivity" allows to move away from the instructive tone of a textbook, and allows to communicate with the reader at the level "in me it happens this way,–and you are free to choose."

Jean Rosenthal begins her book simply "I am a lighting artist. And this profession is as old as I have been engaged in it." It is known that Jean Rosenthal began her career at 20 years old, then the birth of the profession must be considered in the 30s of the last century. Probably, this is also connected with the fact that the first professional union of lighting designers was formed in the USA in 1934, which was formed inside the United Scenic Artists of America (union of theater artists of the USA) founded back in 1918.

When did the profession of Lighting Designer arise? The question is very interesting and undoubtedly requires an answer, especially if you decided to dedicate yourself to this profession. Still, were there no lighting designers before the first third of the 20th century? Of course, Jean Rosenthal limited herself to the history of American theater. But nevertheless, what about Stanley McCandless (1897-1967), about whom Jean herself wrote in her book "he is the progenitor of all of us."

And Norman Bel Geddes (1893-1958) known in the States as an experimenter and author of projects for theaters in Los Angeles and Broadway in 1918, and in Europe as a scenographer and lighting designer, who worked with Max Reinhardt (1873-1943).

Even if we consider that the history of American theater began much later than European, it is clear that the influence of European masters is indisputable. What then? Should we measure the history of the profession from the fixed date of registration of the professional union? In some measure yes. Of course, conditionally, but the legal formalization of the existence of the profession is not unimportant. True, in this case, we will have to admit that the profession of lighting designer in Russia arose only 10 years ago, when the Association of Lighting Designers of Russia was organized under the Union of Artists of Russia. I often had to enter into disputes with our American colleagues on this occasion. In their view, a lighting designer cannot work on the staff of a theater, he must be freelance. Well, if throughout 70 years of the USSR history, being "freelance"–was a criminal offense, then there were no lighting designers in Russia? And what about the works of A. Saltsman. N. Samoilov, N. Barkov, later A. Drapkin, R. Klimovsky, E. Kutikov, E. Udler and many others. (I think we will return to the history of the profession of lighting designer in the USSR and Russia.) Of course, this is a formal, legal approach, which can interest us only as a fact of historiography.

At the same time, often, especially in the past, original ideas, modern understanding of the role of light were formulated by outstanding theater artists. By virtue of education or work experience, they are more known as directors, scenographers, artists, and playwrights. For example, a very common conviction that the modern understanding of lighting in theater was formulated by Adolphe Appia (1862-1928), and he is the founder of experiments on using light as a tool of emotional impact. Adolphe Appia–a writer and artist. Alexander Saltsman, who worked with Appia in Hellerau and later with A. Tairov in the Chamber Theater, is everywhere mentioned as "Russian engineer," although in fact he was the creator of "magical lighting" both in Appia's performances and later in the Chamber Theater. Simply then there was no such word "lighting designer." But this absolutely does not mean that the functions of the lighting designer did not exist.

Some believe that the emergence of the profession of lighting designer was dictated by technical progress. In other words, when theatrical technique was simple and primitive, there was no need for a lighting designer, but as soon as all the equipment became complex and expensive–here he was needed. Such an opinion seems to me simplified, first of all, but what is much more important–very far from understanding the essence of the profession of lighting designer. The eternal story "about the chicken and the egg." Did the development of technique lead the theater to new achievements? Or the formation of new theatrical ideas, searches for more effective forms of communication with the audience insistently demanded the appearance of more complex technique? It seems to me, still the second.

Always, throughout history, there existed, and still remains dissatisfaction with the technical equipment of the theater, technique never kept up with fantasy. How many heart-rending cries of great artists we can find in their notes! About how modern technique is unable to provide the needed quality, that theater is always a compromise between the conceived and technically possible (today). “… The solution to the posed problem is possible either through a series of technical adaptations, or through active participation in the action of light. The role of light on the stage is undoubtedly still insufficiently appreciated by us, and the spirits lurking in it are still not extracted from hermetically sealed electric lamps” (A. Ya. Tairov “Notes of a Director”). Still, where is the truth:–does the artist form requirements for technical equipment or does the development of technique give the artist creative freedom? Of course, this process is bidirectional and interconnected, technical progress expands the palette of used tools, and the requirements of artists often push for unconventional engineering and technological solutions, which probably can be interpreted as inventions. Phenomena of this kind were well appreciated by G. Fuchs “The modern theater, having at its disposal the latest technical invention, long tries it on, like a fashionista a hat, and having achieved some external effect uses it, neglecting the main…” And in the answer to the question of the primacy or secondary of technical progress in the development of theatrical ideas, in my view the decisive is that very “main” about which Georg Fuchs speaks, and following him Gordon Craig–the creation of “general large effects, addressed to vision, enhancing the meanings of what has already been done by the poet”–the emotional content of the theatrical work. And therefore, in virtue of the fact that theatrical art is momentary, can happen only here and now, in the presence of the audience, any fantasies about "how great it would be if we had another fantastic technique" need to be left for "paper" futuristic projects. In the conflict of technique and art, art will always remain. Whether the artist, using the available technique, can perform the main task–create an image solution corresponding to the emotional content of the theatrical action, or not–in this the resolution of the conflict, which depends only on the professionalism of the artist.

Summary of this block: This section outlines the historical and structural challenges in documenting stage lighting, highlighting key books and the shift from technical updates to personal, practical insights on inventing light concepts, while debating the profession's origins tied to technical evolution and artistic needs.

Defining the Role of the Lighting Designer in Theater and Concerts

This book is dedicated to the profession of lighting designer. Profession is first of all craft, a series of tools and technologies applied to obtain, create a "product," later we will consider "craft techniques" without which the lighting designer cannot do. But the profession "lighting designer" includes not only the mastery of a craftsman, but also to a significant degree creative beginning–"artist." A clear idea of what place your profession occupies in the structure of theatrical art, how the "product" of your profession relates and interacts with other components of the collective work of art–the performance–will help avoid false ideas and impulses already at the stage of forming the concept.

Probably, it is correct to first define what stage lighting of a performance is as a phenomenon in its essence.

The aesthetics of modern theater dictates the aesthetics of light. The sophistication of technical techniques and means available in the arsenal of the lighting designer, unfortunately provokes, and very often happens not connected with the dramaturgical comprehension of the production material, does not carry in itself the communicative task of sensory impact on the audience, but is intended, first of all, to amaze the public with unique stage effects, and plunge the auditorium into a state of fascinated contemplation. But, after all, in essence, to the content, that is, the essence of theatrical action such demonstration of tricks has no relation, and leaves the audience indifferent, impassive contemplator. To answer the question why this happens, it is important to arm oneself with understanding of what exactly is the essence and content of theatrical art and how they are expressed through form. Creating a performance, the artist clothes the play in a certain form, to which a certain collision, dramatic action, essence (content) of the performance–the act of forthcoming communication with the audience–is inherent. What can be the objective essence of theatrical art? The objective essence, content of theatrical art is the emotional development of the performance, co-participated, experienced jointly with the audience.

Creating a performance, the artist hardly pursues the goal of only telling some story, such kind of informativeness would very impoverish the theater, for the theatrical artist the main task is the desire to involve the audience in the told story, to make the audience empathize, emotionally "live" what is happening on stage. There arises the so-called "director's concept," rather "intent," if speaking the language of criminologists, in relation to the audience.

"The common fundamental beginning, determining the understanding of this stage of creativity, is the inseparability of the content of the work and the form of its expression. Content is the ideal side of art, form–the material, material way of being of this content. ... Finally, artistic form is always directed, called to manage perception. And the main thing is that all this diversity of functions is carried out not by different elements of form, which could be added and subtracted, but by a unified holistic form, simultaneously being embodiment, and organization, and expression, and management"

The material can be comprehended creatively only if the artist possesses a wide range of expressive means. "Only in this case form-formation is felt by the artist himself not as a cold operation, but as an aesthetic act, the beauty of the creation itself is experienced as the generation of harmony, completeness, wholeness."

In other words, creating an idea or concept of embodying the performance, the directors plan the creation of a quite definite mechanism of impact on the audience's perception. All "intents" of all members of the production team arise from the director's solution on one hand, but in the same measure, from their side influence the concretization and embodiment of this director's solution.

"Director's solution of the work, this is the definition of the author's angle of view on life, on reality, which is reflected in the play, the definition of that measure of conventionality, which will be present in all components of the performance. This measure of conventionality, this way of depicting life must be determined by the artist himself, when he starts working, in search of artistic embodiment of the performance. What is needed here–graphics or easel painting, black, seeming infinite space, in which fragments and particulars necessary for this stage atmosphere are visible, or a everyday pavilion? This cannot be determined by any instruments, Only the author's feeling, the feeling of the work, on one hand, and the visual, artistic feeling–on the other, allow to determine the measure and quality of conventionality, which would correspond to this, concrete work. Only the found measure of this conventionality, which coincides with how a living person acts, decides the success of this very important area of work on the performance." How accurately and adequately, by all participants of the production, the means of impact (communication) on the audience are chosen, so much clearer, more accessible for perception in the result will be that emotional content, which the performance is called to convey to the public.

The tasks of the lighting designer to make a conscious choice of means and methods of impact, to react with the movement of light to all actor and scenographic manifestations, creating a dynamic communicative process of stage action. And then the performance–communication of actor and audience–become a unified environment, existing in space and time.

Creation of light environment, maximally revealing the goals of the production, containing informational and emotional message to the audience–here is the result of mastering the space of the performance by light.

Form-forming vision gives the concept expressiveness, aesthetic sensuality. And here becomes necessary such a component as directedness–author's worldview and world-feeling, adapted to the mentality of the present audience. From it is born the concept of light solution–form of light statement; logically, psychologically, physiologically and aesthetically built sequence of impacts on the visual perception of the audience.

"The main thing today–solution of artisticness of light and color of the performance, in which there would be a plot-dramaturgical (scenario) framework, artistic image and pictorial culture, on whatever stage this occurs" (O.A. Sheyntsis, 1992, from interview)

In the statement of O.A. Sheyntsis peeps through cruel nostalgia for dramaturgically verified, emotionally built, and at the same time accessible to understanding (reading) by the audience light score of the performance.

Forecasting the audience perception of the artistic space of the performance occurs through organization, by means of lighting, of each moment of action in any its point of duration. Such method of developing the light score of the performance bears the name "light direction." This term arose with the light hand of T.I. Bachelis in relation to the creativity of G. Craig: "Methods of 'light direction' of Craig were fully subordinated to the pre-sensation of the holistic tragic form of the musical performance." As you see already then "methods" of G. Craig directly corresponded to the results of researches of problems of form of theatrical art by known philosophers (L.S. Vygotsky, Yu.M. Lotman and others). However if to speak about light direction as about method of building the light score of the performance, then this method, as theatrical direction, in the words of G. Craig is "organization of general large effects, addressed to vision, enhancing the meanings of what has already been done by the poet." Light direction organizes the vision (reading) of those very "effects addressed to vision."

The ability to see figuratively, to fantasize, relying on one's own intellectual and aesthetic experience, allows the artist to create the light concept of the performance.

The light concept of the performance–this is stylistically defined, compositionally verified highlighting of significant informational and emotional moments, objects and zones, choice of viewing angle and color tone, ratio of informational and emotional fields of the work. And this means that, in the expression of the great G.A. Tovstonogov: "it is necessary to very accurately determine the function and place of audience impressions in creating the artistic image of the performance. Moreover, the design, outside the general stage process of this performance, may not represent independent artistic value. But it is important that it 'sounds' in full force in conjunction with the general concept, with the stage solution of the performance, with its atmosphere.

Only in this ratio is possible the creation of a holistic work of stage art, in which the artist will play one of the roles–important responsible, necessary, but fully understandable and significant only in the general artistic ensemble, where all components are subordinated to one thought, one idea, one image solution."

Dramaturgical motivation of light, elegant light solution, awareness of "dramatic shift" (in the expression of Tairov A.Ya)–light concept–this is the path of materialization of the concept.

The main task of light–not to illustrate what is happening, but to direct the gaze, awaken thought, rivet the audience's attention to the action highlighted by light. And only from the artist depends the choice of expressive means, enhancing the originality of the production. Use of modern light equipment gives the possibility of more dynamic "reading" of stage space and accentuation of the most important moments of the performance. But there is another danger, following the temptation of "latest technologies," when it is easy enough to evoke delight in the audience by the unusualness of "novelty," rejecting the essence of what is happening on stage, to subordinate the light score to "delights of new effects," to forget about the main goal: "to convey to the audience the essence of what is created by the poet" (dramatist, composer).

For the performance to happen as a unified whole, besides all "intents" and fantasies of the production team artists, it is necessary to understand that in all this chain the final link–the audience. From what and how the audience will see, what feelings and associations can be born in him depends the effectiveness of the "intents" of the team because "not the eyes perceive the world, but the person, endowed with eyes and carrying out in the boundless and multilayered environment a peculiar search, selection of material, analysis and synthesis, operations of limitations and generalizations."

Light determines the degree of involvement of the audience in the action of the performance as in the general sense of vision (sight), so contact of the auditorium with the stage, when the forecasted (planned) switching of concentration of attention from one character to another or to any other objects in the course of development of action will occur.

In this part we actively used quotes from statements of leading masters of the scene and theoretical researches of philosophers and art critics engaged in the study of theater. Their high authority to a significant degree facilitates our task in search of the "philosopher's stone" of the profession.

Let's for now distract from high considerations and consider utilitarian, from a practical point of view, what is a lighting designer, what are his tasks and what can the lighting designer operate executing his functions?

Summary of this block: This section defines the lighting designer's role as blending craft and creativity, emphasizing light's aesthetic essence in creating emotional communication, and introduces key concepts like light direction and concept for immersive stage experiences.

Theatrical Lighting as an Aesthetic Phenomenon: Core Principles

What is "lighting designer."

What does the lighting designer do in the theater? Of course, illuminates the playing stage space. But if theatrical lighting of the scene was only a question of providing sufficiently bright illumination, which allows the audience to see the stage and all happening on it, in this case the profession of lighting designer would not arise. One powerful luminaire flooding the entire space of the stage is quite enough to provide conditions of normal visibility of all details of scenography and actors acting on stage. But this, as you understand, is not enough to give the lighting artistic meaning and form a special artistic space, corresponding to the idea, concept, style, finally, of the created performance.

The lighting designer must solve both these questions simultaneously, on one hand, providing the audience with the necessary–possibility to see what is happening, at the same time create the visible space, forming the structure and emotional expressiveness of the scene, manipulating the properties of light. You, as a lighting designer, need much more than just knowledge of theatrical equipment. You must, creating the light score, ("managing light"), in the final account, manage or "program" what and, mainly, how the audience should see in the created space of the work. You, first of all, need understanding of the mechanism of "vision" of the audience, his perception, connection between what and how is illuminated, how this perceives the eye and what impression is created in the audience as a result of your work. Interaction of light, eye, brain and psychology of perception of the audience–this is a unified mechanism, the work of which you tune to perception, precise mastering of the idea, emotional structure of the stage work. Illuminating the stage space, you construct the light score of the performance, in other words the score of visual experience of the audience, in the conditions of the stage action created by you, precisely compositionally verified sequential perception of the development of the performance.

Having watched the performance, a professional will always ask himself, in connection with what he saw: did the light in the performance work effectively or not, did the "role of light" in the performance happen? Naturally we all want what we did to work effectively,–to play. We often repeat: "role of light in the performance"–this is not just words. In the same measure in which any component of the performance, from main acting persons to scenography, costumes and so on, any component of the performance plays its role–"tells its story" so light plays its party in the "general orchestra" of emotional development of stage action. Each of the participants uses his professional language, actors–possibly, Stanislavsky's system, scenographers–theory of composition and much else, costume designer his. What is the language of the lighting designer, what are his, the lighting designer's, means of expression? How to learn to communicate professionally (i.e. express one's ideas and be understood by the audience and theatrical colleagues), so that the stage action acquires the highest expressiveness, to convey to the audience the entire spectrum of concepts and ideas?

This is very important, to use all available ways to find and realize one's idea, reveal the essence of the production, express the concept of the work by one's professional language. Where do ideas come from, where to find the solution, what gives us keys in resolving ideas?

PRACTICE

Trying countless ways and variants, realizing a concrete task, we try many variants. From the first days of work in the profession we try to realize our "vision," and probably not always achieve success, especially at the beginning of the path. It is important, always analyze why this or that way does not fit for solving this concrete task, and in what situation, in what it can work and be used in the future. Sometimes, not achieving the needed result in one performance, discarding for time some technique or way of solution, perhaps we thereby prepare a successful solution for another performance? Any experiments successful and unsuccessful over time expand our arsenal of means and diverse methods.

OBSERVATIONS

Search, try to "see light" everywhere around yourself. Try to understand how this or that picture arose, how it can be recreated on stage. Light in interior or exterior, on photograph or in cinema, on stage finally–this is our life and professional experience. In the initial course of actor training enters the course "observations," when students learn, observing the surrounding, "collect" emotions and ways of their expression in various "types" of people. In the same measure the lighting designer, "collects" and analyzes various states of illumination of the environment, listens to his emotional state caused by the seen, to use this experience in his future theatrical solutions.

LEARNING

Watch more often works of great masters, especially in painting, how they, using light, created their compositions. How the photographer builds his frame. Great films of Eisenstein, each frame in the master's film, this is not only a lesson of genius mastery of composition, but also no less genius use of light. The greatest master Diego Velazquez, such feeling that his canvases are created not by paints, but by light. El Greco and Rembrandt, Kuindzhi and Repin,–who can give you more for understanding light.

In what consists the function of the lighting designer?

In what his "role" (party) in the performance? What the lighting designer can give to the performance, about what he can by his means tell the audience and help understand, perceive what is happening on stage:

Visibility – Ensures conditions in which we can see the action. Banal condition, so that the audience could distinguish what is happening on stage. At the same time, there is a certain law of theatrical conventionality of perception of the audience:–object located in the space of the stage, but not illuminated specially, in the perception of the audience–does not exist.

Location – Helps the audience determine where the action occurs: in interior or exterior, seashore or cave,–these are various ways of lighting, giving the audience an exact sign in understanding what is happening.

Time – Helps understand at what time of day the action occurs, or during what time, hours, days (days) lasted what is happening. ("from noon to sunset")

Dynamics – Sets the tempo-rhythm and internal movement of stage action, not only from picture to picture, but in every moment of what is happening. The tempo of changeability of light pictures determines the rhythm of what is happening on stage. Unlike elements of scenography and even actors,–light is the most easily movable element of stage action.

Atmosphere – Creates the mood of the picture in which the action occurs.

Focus of attention – By certain way highlighting, by brightness, color, way of lighting, managing the balance of brightness and contrast, directs the audience's gaze to the most important zones of stage space.

Texture – Revealing (suppressing) the texture of objects, emphasizing (erasing) the form of objects creates a graphic picture of stage space.

Style and Genre – Using corresponding colors, techniques and ways of lighting designates, confirms the stylistic solution of the action.

Amazement – Creating all possible effects, conquers and enchants the audience. Unexpected, non-trivial actions of the lighting designer can cause admiration in the audience, at some moment of action.

Summary of this block: This section explains lighting as both functional visibility and artistic space-shaping, detailing the lighting designer's language through practice, observation, and learning, and lists core functions like visibility, location, time, dynamics, atmosphere, focus, texture, style, and amazement.

Key Functions of Lighting in Shaping Stage Action and Atmosphere

• What tools does the lighting designer possess to fulfill the tasks before him? What does the lighting designer manipulate during his work?
• What "tools" does the lighting designer use? Controllable properties of stage lighting

In this chapter, we will briefly outline the arsenal available to the lighting designer for crafting the light design of a performance. In subsequent sections, we will return to these categories multiple times, as the aim of this book is to identify the most effective methods for their application. We cannot determine with certainty which category is primary and which is secondary. Depending on each specific production and its unique circumstances, any category might assume critical importance in realizing your vision. Thus, the order presented below is arbitrary.

In his book "Stage Lighting Design", published in 1932, Stanley McCandless identified four fundamental properties of light that the lighting designer controls:

• Intensity
• Color
• Form
• Movement

Accepting McCandless's framework, we must expand this list to account for contemporary advancements in theatrical technology and the evolved understanding of modern theater aesthetics.

• Angle
• Brightness
• Form
• Color
• Movement
• Rhythm
• Composition
• Focus of attention

This is perhaps the question most frequently posed to a lighting designer: "From where should the light source be aimed to illuminate this object?" The answer hinges on the array of ideas the artist seeks to embody for that object. To what extent should the object be fully lit? How "dramatic" should it appear in the audience's perception? Often, these two objectives must collaborate, yet they can also clash. The "dramatic quality" of shadows might be diminished by additional sources that achieve "full" illumination. The graphic nature of a shadow also serves as a key element in composition.

Invariably, when positioning a light source in space, we address a series of questions: Is the light illuminating the object abstract or motivated? If motivated, by what–is it sunlight, moonlight, a candle, a wall sconce, or the glow from a billboard? If abstract, then this light, in the audience's view, bears no association with real-world sources. At the same time, we must recognize that the angle of illumination carries an emotional weight. Even as children, a face lit from below terrified us, evoking feelings of fear.

Lighting can be categorized into six primary directions: Frontal lighting–light aimed directly at the object, aligned with the audience's eye level. Backlighting–light directed at the object from behind. Side lighting–light aimed at the object from the side. Top lighting–light directed downward onto the object. Bottom lighting–light aimed upward at the object. Front-top lighting–light directed from the front and above, within a 45-degree angle from the stage plane.

This classification is somewhat formal, as actual stage setups offer numerous instrument placement options; nonetheless, any illumination angle can be viewed as a derivative of those listed. (For instance, top-back lighting, positioned rearward and overhead.)

Regarding emotional impact, the following can be noted based on the angle: Frontal lighting, lacking shadows, appears minimally engaging and dull. Yet in specific scenarios, with a strong source, it can yield a particular emotional effect. Backlighting is often described as enigmatic and mystical. Side lighting typically feels intriguing and profound, though rather abstract. Top lighting frequently evokes, like backlighting, a sense of mystery and enigma; it can serve as a commanding dominant, often employed to "anchor" the stage composition to the floor. Front-top lighting, positioned at 45–60 degrees, can appear quite engaging and pure. This is the ideal angle for addressing visibility concerns, such as rendering actors' facial expressions clearly.

In examining these matters, the crucial point is to grasp that SHADOW holds no less importance than LIGHT when aiming to disclose the contours or form of an object. The interplay and equilibrium between light and shadow enable the creation of an emotionally resonant sense of spatial volume and depth.

Combine angles of lighting

Merging angles allows us to blend the sensations evoked by different lighting methods.
Backlighting, as noted, is termed "enigmatic and mystical"; in isolation, it superbly accentuates an object's form and silhouette. Yet alone in a performance, it might appear just once or twice. Combined with other sources, it can transform the scene entirely. For example, paired with strong side lighting and subtle front fill, it isolates the object from the surrounding set, visually drawing it nearer to the audience in perception.
The direction–from which point the object is lit–dictates how the audience sees it, how it appears.
Depending on the angle, lighting may be interpreted (perceived) by the audience as FLAT or VOLUMETRIC, REALISTIC or MYSTICAL or UNUSUAL, AUTHENTIC or DECEPTIVE.

The manner in which the audience assesses lighting quality on stage directly ties to observations from nature, the surrounding world.

A solitary powerful source can prove highly effective due to its conciseness.

The dominance of one potent directional source within a scene composed of many others is often dubbed the "key source." Employing "key" light can also be profoundly expressive.

In analyzing how a light source functions in the overall light image, based on the object's illumination angle, general insights emerge: Light discloses, accentuates form. Uniform, equivalent brightness ensuring visibility is typically dull and uninteresting. Shadow invariably highlights light. A multitude of sources always signifies a loss of clarity. A prevailing "key" source is always expressively potent.

Summary of this block: This section lists controllable light properties like intensity, color, form, movement, and expands to include angle, brightness, rhythm, and focus, detailing how angles affect emotional perception and advocating for balanced combinations to enhance stage dynamics.

Understanding Ambient Light: Its Role in Creating Immersive Environments

Brightness

Brightness–this is the quantity of light energy reflected by the scene. The lighting designer operates intensity, choosing types, power, as well as necessary quantity of used lighting instruments, regulates illuminance, changing voltage supply on each instrument. Brightness of light, magnitude capable of changing in quite large ranges, from weak flickering to the highest limit which the eye can withstand. In theater brightness depends on the quantity of instruments their size, also from used inclusions, dimmer blocks, filters, shutters, gobo and so on. There are several moments which necessary to consider in understanding the category of brightness.

Subjective impression of brightness

Illuminance can be measured, for this there are series of scientific methods, which in conditions of theater can represent only purely academic interest. The artist is much more interested in subjective impression which brightness produces on the public: i.e. not what light is, but what it seems. Single candle on dark scene will seem quite bright, whereas kilowatt instruments in light position will seem quite dim. Contrast–rather is the main measure of brightness. Color and texture of decorations, costumes, props, as well as makeup of actors' faces to significant degree influence the created impression of brightness. Same brightness will give different effect in black or white design.

Adaptation

With change of brightness occurs habituation (adaptation) of the observer's eye. The eye possesses extremely important biological ability to adapt–adapt to various modes of work. Thanks to this property the visual system works in wide range of brightnesses: 10-6–105 cd/m2. With change of level of brightness of the field of vision, automatically turns on whole series of mechanisms, which provide reconfiguration of vision. Adaptation should be considered as development in time of the process of perception of transition from one level of brightness to another. Light picture will seem much brighter, if it follows dark. But after habituation of the eye it "dims." Therefore, to preserve sensation of brightness, possibly necessary gradually increase brightness during the entire scene to smooth this effect of "dimming." In opposite to this if preceding dark scene light will gradually darken, then transition of the audience to "darkness" will be more smooth, and he much better will perceive what is happening in dark scene.

Visual fatigue

Physiology of the organism is quite stubborn thing. Just as our muscles tire from tense work, the apparatus of visual perception tires at visual overloads. As a result of fatigue thresholds of sensitivity both to color and to brightness decrease, workability of the organ of vision decreases. Excessive blinding light, or very low illuminance during some significant interval of time, in equal degree as large quantity of sharp light transitions can cause fatigue of the audience.

Visual perception

Multitude of psychological factors influences the perception of brightness by the audience, here belongs level of adaptation, and contrast of brightness, brightness of the light itself, and luminosity and so on. Operating brightness, we try to provide some quantity of lighting, allowing easily distinguish color, reflective ability, contrast and size of the object, and its distance from the audience. Creating the picture, organizing in certain way ratios of perceived brightness of various zones of stage space, we organize some hierarchy of objects in perception of the audience. Also we control the sequence of reading (mastering) by the audience of our composition, understanding that the audience always first of all highlights more illuminated object, then less and so on to the darkest.

In solving all these captivating tasks necessary remember, that first of all, necessary respect the public sitting and in rear and in front rows of the hall. The farther the audience is, the more light should be on stage. Always remember and consider "law of square of distances."–Illuminance inversely proportional to square of distance. Audience sitting twice farther, will see four times worse.

Emotional perception of brightness

Tension and mood connected with brightness, are determined by how comfortable the audience feels in the proposed situation. Bright light causes greater visual acuity of perception, making audiences more lively reacting. Old rule “bright light for comedy” as cannot better confirms this.

Summary of this block: This section explores brightness as reflected energy, subjective impressions influenced by contrast and adaptation, visual fatigue risks, and emotional effects, stressing balanced control for audience comfort and engagement in ambient environments.

Angles and Directions in Lighting: Impact on Perception and Emotion

Form

Questions of revealing form of objects on stage we touched in passing, speaking about various angles of lighting. The principle of lighting the object directly relates to what form the audience will see. In this case it is about somewhat other forms. The artist, preparing to create a picturesque canvas, stretches the canvas on a subframe. Sizes and proportions of the canvas for him are no less important than the content itself of the future picture. The form itself of the canvas already bears in itself certain informational and emotional impulse. So for the lighting designer, relating to the boundaries of architectural space, necessary accept decision what volume of space should be used in every separate moment of the performance. Even if the scenographer quite rigidly sets the playing space, the lighting designer always in condition illuminate it entirely, or some separate part of the given space.

Known rule, the more light is focused on one actor, the more he is highlighted, the more the audience concentrates on subtleties of his psychological play. As we increase the size of the field of visibility, audiences, can assume, expand their circle of attention, to influence of surrounding environment–social, symbolic or cosmic, finally. If to draw parallels with painting, for example, then narrowly illuminated actor–this is portrait. Large illuminated areas–this is landscape or genre scenes. Drama, as a rule, this is conflict of personality and environment. Conflicts of personality, as a rule, inside. The same principle applicable to light: the wider the space, the larger the circle of included questions. At certain style of the performance, sizes of illuminated space can vary, depending on change of types of conflicts in the course of the play.

Summary of this block: This section discusses form as shaping visible space, comparing it to canvas proportions, and how varying illuminated areas direct audience focus from intimate character studies to broader environmental conflicts.

Brightness and Adaptation: Managing Visual Dynamics on Stage

Color

In "Doctrine of Color" I.V. Goethe wrote: "color–product of light, evoking emotions." When we say: "blackened from grief; reddened from anger, greened from malice, grayed from fear," we do not perceive these expressions literally, but intuitively connect emotional experiences of man with way to express them by color. Any color of visible spectrum, in principle available for the lighting designer. Color on stage is product of mixing colored light and color of the object. Visibility of objects possible only because all they are for the eye essence reflectors of light. Tender tones of colored light can highlight actors' faces or set general color tone of the scene. Natural or stylized color used, to emphasize, change or obtain necessary color tone of costumes and decorations. By and large any light–this is already color. Even the most powerful light source–sun–we only conditionally accept as "white," but, having decomposed it, we get the entire spectrum of colors. Action of color on man noticed long ago: color influences all his physiological systems, activating or suppressing their activity, color creates this or that mood, suggests certain thoughts and feelings. Impact of color can be divided into physiological, psychological and aesthetic, to these categories still necessary add also color associations, semantics and symbolism of color.

Bright, saturated or rich dark colors can be quite dramatic, usually they are used to designate, inform the audience some meaning connected with associative or symbolic meaning of color. For example, red can be read as "passion" or "blood," blue as "pacified," "romantic," green as "envy" and so on. In any case meaning of saturated colors very important.

Light, pastel colors no less effective, but they not so intrusive. Colors of light tones more often applied, to for example, realize state of nature in which unfolds stage action, imitate light of sunny valley or lunar night. Also some colors used to emphasize color and texture of skin of face, costume or decorations. Such lightly colored lighting, as a rule, subdivided into "cold lighting" and "warm lighting".

Warm and Cold lighting

If we observe lighting of object in nature, then volume of this object always revealed by balance of warm and cold lighting. We see one side illuminated, suppose, warm solar light, the other side always illuminated by cold, reflected from sky light. This gives birth to magnificent play of light and shadow, in nature shadow always cold. Important understand, that as brightness, warmth and coldness of color always relative in ratio with neighboring, other next used color. In different combinations one and the same color can look both as warm and as cold. As a rule, in built, balanced picture "pure" unfiltered beam will look lifeless and brutal.

Choosing colors, composing one's gamma "warm" and "cold" you create palette by which will be painted your picture–performance. Do not forget about rules of harmony, combination of colors this is language by which we communicate with the audience. Necessary remember:

Any light possesses color

Color is a powerful communicative means for creation of atmosphere and mood

Color is used to emphasize, change, or achieve the desired color tone of costumes and decorations. By and large, any light is already color. Even the most powerful light source–the sun–we only conditionally accept as "white," but, having decomposed it, we get the entire spectrum of colors.

The action of color on a person has been noticed long ago: color influences all his physiological systems, activating or suppressing their activity, color creates this or that mood, suggests certain thoughts and feelings. The impact of color can be divided into physiological, psychological, and aesthetic; to these categories, it is also necessary to add color associations, semantics, and symbolism of color.

Read more: Fundamentals of Human Perception of Light and Color: Eye, Brain, Adaptation

FAQ: Common Questions on Lighting and Ambient Light Fundamentals

What is the primary difference between directed lighting and ambient light in theater?
Directed lighting focuses beams to highlight specific elements like actors or props for dramatic emphasis, while ambient light provides overall, diffused illumination to create mood and spatial depth without harsh shadows.

How does angle of light affect audience perception in a stage setting?
Angles like frontal or side lighting can make scenes appear flat or volumetric, influencing emotions–e.g., bottom lighting evokes fear, while top-front ensures clear visibility of facial expressions.

Why is color considered a key tool in stage lighting design?
Color evokes emotions and symbolism; warm tones like red suggest passion, while cool blues create calm, helping to align visual cues with the narrative's emotional arc.

What role does brightness adaptation play in dynamic lighting changes?
Audience eyes adjust to brightness shifts, so gradual increases maintain perceived intensity; sudden changes can cause fatigue or enhance dramatic transitions.

How can lighting designers use form to manipulate stage space?
By varying illuminated areas, designers shift focus from intimate portraits (narrow beams) to expansive landscapes (broad ambient glow), mirroring dramatic conflicts.

Is there a historical basis for color symbolism in theatrical lighting?
Yes, from ancient triads (white, black, red) symbolizing life, death, and power, to modern uses where colors like green denote passivity or red energy, rooted in cultural evolution.

What unexpected connection exists between sound and light in performances?
Synesthesia links colors to sounds; low tones associate with saturated hues, high with lighter ones, allowing light to interpret music rhythmically without rigid mappings.

How does ambient light contribute to immersive concert experiences?
It builds atmospheric layers, blending with directed spots to envelop the audience, enhancing emotional immersion beyond mere visibility.

Source Information and Credits

This article is based on the book "Magic of Light: Practical Guide" by Vladimir Viktorovich Lukasevich, a lighting designer born August 4, 1956, died December 13, 2014, an engineer and theatrical lighting artist. For writing this article, original works of Vladimir Viktorovich Lukasevich were used, and the series of articles is used for popularization of stage lighting under the patronage of Sundrax Entertainment. Edited by Alex Deno, Founder Sundrax.

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As a leading producer of professional stage equipment, Sundrax recommends exploring our blog at https://entertainment.sundrax.com/blog/ for additional articles on stage lighting themes, equipment reviews, guides, and lifehacks on illumination to enhance your designs.